Abdulaziz Issa

The word jurisprudence is derived from two Latin words, juris— meaning 'of law', and prudens—meaning 'skilled'. The term has been used variously at different times, ranging from its use to describe knowledge of the law to its more specific definition as a description of fundamental legal phenomena. Jurists' work can be divided into various distinctive areas, depending mainly on the subject matter. Normative jurisprudence involves evaluation of legal rules and structures on the basis of some standard of perfection. Sociological jurbisprudence seeks to clarify the link between law and other social phenomena.

Root‐knot nematodes (RKN), (Meloidogyne spp.) are obligate endoparasites of more than 3000 species of plants, which results in $80 billion worth of economic loss every year, worldwide. Considerable variation in ability to break crop resistance and to reproduce on different crop species is observed both between and within Meloidogyne. The main feature of plant-parasitic root-knot nematode is its potential host range encompassing more than 3,000 plant species. The adaptation of root-knot nematodes to its various environments of plant hosts raises questions about genome plasticity leading to genetic variation and adaptive evolution. It has been proposed that epigenetic as well as cytogenetic variation mechanisms might in part be responsible for the generation of phenotypic variants that provide material for rapid adaptation of more than 3000 plant host environments. As the results, Meloidogyne species constitutes a unique model system to study the links between variation in genome structure, mode of reproduction, and adaptation to environment and hosts, in relation with parasitic success. Controlling of obligate plant parasitic-root-knot nematode is generally difficult and also with the banning of nematicides chemicals that control nematode, because of adverse environmental impacts, it is imperative that new safe disease control strategies for nematode management should be developed and implemented. In order to develop new and environmentally safe disease control strategies, it is essential to understand the molecular, cellular and genetics basis of how RKN interact, evolve and adapt various host plants. Thus, in this review paper, therefore, we have conducted extensive literature reviews to identify the cytogenetic status (classical cytogenetics-molecular cytogenetics) of root‐knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). Specifically, the status of the studied areas of cytogenetic in RKN as well as the pattern of cytogenetic variation and evolution were summarized